INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit you have studied some of the fundamental issues concerning the. designing of a research study. After preparing the research design, the next task fa&g ‘tife researcher is implementation of the research plan into action. This involves the process of gathering data and deciding on the means by which such data are to be collected. The means or techniques which help in the procurement of data are often referred to as the tools of data collection. Obviously then, the foremost requirement at this stage is the selection’of appropriate tools of data collection. Broadly speaking, the nature of the research problem, the type of research design, the type of respondents and their geographical distribution, the professional competence of investigators available for collecting data, the period within which the study is to be completed and the funds available etc. determine the selection of tools for the collection of data.
Let. us now acquaint you with the different tools, their main features and their strengths and weaknesses. But before that a brief exposition of the nature of data in social sciences will be helpful
STRATEGIES AND NATURE OF DATA IN SOCIAL SCIENCES
Social scientists generally employ four principal research strategies for understanding the social world, viz., field research, surveys, expeMents and the use of available data.iEach discipline tends to favour a particular strategy. For instance, anthropdlogists characteristically conduct field research, sociologists most often do survey research, psychologists typically conduct experiments and historians tend to make use of available data. However, all the four strategies are important to the world of social research and one or more of the four can be used to study most social
phenomena. But the nature of data and requirements of data collection do vary from one strategy to hother.
Fieid research is essentially a matter of studying a naturally qccuning set of events so as to gain first hand knowledge of the situation. For instance, an anthropologist lives in a remote community for long periods in order to study the culture of its inhabitants. Sometimes, sociologists too take up work in an ornanisation without disclosing their true purpose, i.e. to gather inside information about the functioning of the organisation and to understand the organisation in a way its members see it. The most important tool for this kind of field research is observation. There are other tods aiso that are used in field research such as the schedule, the interview and the mailed questionnaire. We shall read about them later in this unit.
The seumd approach employed to study a social phenomenon is the survey research. Survey research usually covers big groups of people or large sections of the population. The term is used to describe a wide range of investigations, the objectives of which may cover an equally wide spectrum. The nature of data is mainly determined by the type of the research problem and the research objectives.
Surveys aim to 6nd facts. They could be primarily descriptive, i.e. they seek to describe tbe dbtributioo within a population of certain characteristics, attitudes or expeaiences, or eqh..tory, i.e. they investigate and attempt to explain the relatioarbip between two or more characteristics or events. For example, you may be
inter& to determine the relationship between the incidence of a particular disease and the socio-economic characteristics of the people in a rural set up. You will, in that case, gather information about the salient socio-economic characteristics like age, geoda, family, caste, social status, income, occupation, etc. of all those people who are suffering from that disease and then study the relationships.
Surveys can further be characterized as cross-sectional or longitudinal studies. In the former type, data on a sample constituting a cross-section of the people are gathered at essentially one point in time. In longitudinal studies, however, the individuals in the sample are observed at predetermined stages over an extended period of time in order to ascertain the changes in a particular characteristic or attitude. The number of respondents here is usually smaller and, at times;less representative than the cross-sectional survey, but the nature and direction of change can be more readily ascertained from a.longitudinal survey. Generally speaking, longitudinal studies are of long duration, require more funds and are comparatively difficult to conduct. There is also the problem of attrition in the sample and finding replacements. However, since such studies yield valuable information on changes over time, in some situations they are preferred.
requirements that permit strong inferences in terms of cause and effect, i.e., one variable causes changes in another variable. The two key features of the experimental approach are manipulation and control. In order to test a hypothesis, the researcher deliberately manipulates or introduces changes in the environment of the subjects and observes or measures the effects of the changes. Also, greater control is exercised over conditions of observation than in any other research strategy. Efforts are made to more effectively eliminate the possibility of extraneous variables influencing the fesearch findings.
For example, you may be interested to study the impact of some new teaching method on the performance of students belonging to a school in a village. This can be done by following a ‘before after’ exprimental design or by having an experimental group – control group, experimental design. In the case of the former, the performance (dependent variable) before the introduction of the new teaching method (independent variable) is compared with the performance of the students after the introduction of the new teaching method. The difference is attributable to the independent variable, i.e. the new teaching method.
Random assignment of students to the two groups will ensure that pre-experimental differences of age, sex, intelligence, social background and other relevant attributes are neutralised or distributed approximately evenly among both the groups – i.e. to the experimental group and to the control group. Further, the experimental and control group students must experience the same events or conditions (e.g. same class room environment, boarding or lodging facilities etc.) during the period of experiment except for the manipulation through the independent variable (in this case the new teaching method). In other words, all other factors being equal, the experimental group is subjected to the treatment of the new teaching method while the m t r o l group is not. In the main, the pre and post experimental observations constiblte the data. The performance of the experimental and control groups is systematically observed and recorded before and after the experiment. The change in performance, if any, can be construed as the cause-effect of the independent variable (i.e. new teaching method) on the dekndent variable (i.e. performance of students). The data in experimental research are precise, compact and to the point. Data are also limited in nature i.e. they are mainly constituted by the observations made on the variables involved.
The fourth general strategy for doing social research is to make use of available data such a;that prodaced by the Census or National Sample Survey Organisation. Sometimes, tge research utilises data that were originally produced for a completely different purpose. Such data are often subjected to some form of scrutiny and processing before analysis, keeping in view the objective of the study. Data also exist in the form of public documents, official statistics, court records, private documents (such as autobiographies, diaries, personal letters), mass mediasuch as newspapers, magazines, journals, films etc. In spite of the extiaordinary diversity of available data, a majm problem with this approach is’of locating the relevant information as these are often not kept in a systematic form. This can be a time consuming affair. Also, the researcher should have adequate knowledge about the functioning of libraries, archives, data storing facilities, etc. A major limitation is that the quality of such data shows considerable variation. Quite often, the definitions and the context are not
OBSERVATION
Observation is a basic method of getting information about the world around us. As Long as we are awake, we are almost constantly engaged in observation. For instance, we get up in the morning and observe whether it is a sunny or a rainy day and make our decision about carrying an umbrella accordingly. Not only is observation part and parcel of our daily life but many types of data required as evidence to support social research are also obtained through the observational method. The greatest asset of observational technique is that it is possible to record the actual occurrence of social events. While many research techniques depend mainly if not entirely on recalling the past events, observational method yields such data as are related to real life situations. A trained researcher can even observe and record all the minor details of a community with the help of this technique which to others might seem insignificant.
It is important to note that all social phenomena are not open to observation. For example, a researcher cannot have access to the private life of the people. Again, all the events which can be studied through observation, may not necessarily find a ready observer. Notwithstanding these aspects, empirical research always involves some kind of observation.
Observation may serve a variety of research purposes. It can be used in exploratory research to develop a preliminary understanding of social phenomena. It can be applied to study real life situations as well as to conduct experimental research. Again, it can simply be used to collect supplementary data in support of other tools of data collection. Observation includes the most casual and uncontrolled experiences as well as exact recording as is done in experimentation. In fact, observation is useful for studying simpler as well as complex research problems.
Irrespective of the purpose of study, four important dimensions of observational technique are: IGNOU RDD5-2 PROJECT GUIDELINE
- What is to be observed?
- How to record observations?
- How to ensure the accuracy of observations? and
- What should be the relation between the observer and observed?
Observation becomes a scientific technique when it:
is planned and recorded systematically;
serves a formulated research purpose;
is related to the more general propositions of scientific method; and
- is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.
Observation technique can broadly be characterized as uncontrolled or controlled.
Uncontrolled Observation
Most of the knowledge which people have about their social environment is derived from uncontrolled observation. By uncontrolled is meant that observations are made without the help of any standardized techniques or rigid guidelines. The researcher observes the social phenomenon by looking at or listening to the people. He learns about the social situation simply by witnessing or partlc~patingin the activities of the people. No checks or controls are exercised on the observer and the observed. In other words, the validity of observations made by an observer cannot be cross checked by others.
Uncontrolled observation is of two types. Participant observation and nonparticipant observation.
- Participant Observation: In this method the investigator conceals his real purpose in order to be accepted as a member of a group or community. The underlying assumption is that if the members of a community remain unaware of the researcher’s
purpose, their behaviour is least likely to be affected. Participation ensures that the emotional reactions of researcher to all the events could be more or less similar as that of the actual members of a community. In fact, the researcher acquires the true feeling of all the activities through participation. The process helps to record the natural behaviour of the group. It makes possible the gathering of all such information as could not easily be obtained by merely looking in a disinterested fashion. The information collected has greater depth of experience. Furthermore, since participation can be for a short or a longer period the range of material collected is usually much wider. No other method (for instance, the interview or the schedule) can match participant observation on this count. Lastly, the researcher can also know and record the context of information thereby imparting richness and depth to data.
Participant observation has also some obvious disadvantages. There are chances that by becorning a participant, the researcher narrows his range of experience. Sometimes, he may take on a particular position within the group, associate with a friendship circle or develop an attitude of sympathy towards certain situations. This way he may acquire a partial or a partisan view, engage in ego satisfaction, or may react in anger or sympathy rather than really observing others. Due to such emotional participation the researcher comes to lose objectivity which is his greatest asset. In case there is a hierarchy of power or prestige in an organisation the researcher, while occupying one position, may foreclose to himself many other avenues of information. Lastly, the researcher may become so much acquainted with a situation that he may take many aspects as granted or perfectly natural and hence, frequently fail to note certain mportant details. In participant observation another problem relates to the standardisation of the technique due to which another researcher may not be able t6 repeat the procedure. Testing for reliability therefore becomes difficult.
- Non-Participant Observation: have noted above some of the difficulties encountered within the method of participant observation. Notwithstanding these limitations, in many situations it may not at all be possible for the researcher to become a true participant. For instance, a researcher cannot embark on criminal behavic~urin order to study the functioning of a criminal gang. Some of these problems can be overcome by the method of non-participant observation. By non-participant 0bse~ationis meant that the researcher need not actually participate in the people’s activities. He can live among them and can make his observations without performing any particular role in the community or organisation. However, purely,nop-participant observation is difficult. A community or group may develop, apprehensions about the researcher as a,non-member and outsider who is always present but never participating. In such a situation both the researcher as an outsider and the group as a whole may feel uncomfortable.
Non-participant observation at best, then, is quasi;participant observation. In this method, the researcher actually shifts from one role to another in the field. It is possible to take part in a number of activities of the group. Also, carrying out different roles is simpler than attempting to conceal one’s identity and purpose completely. For example, while studying a rural society, a researcher may join a-marriage ceremony as a participant but during harvesting he may simply sit and record the details of work sharing etc. Such a shift is made easier by the fact that patterns of social behaviour are not likely to be changed in important ways by the presence of the researcher once his role is properly defined and accepted by the
Controlled Observation
The main considerations in observational method are: i) Whether the situation is to be a natural one or a contrived one and ii) whether those observed are to be aware or unaware of the observer. In most uncontrolled observation, the situation is natural and those observed may or may not be aware of the researcher’s presence. This may also be true of controlled observation. What is important in controlled observation, however, is that the researcher is ordinarily not limiting the activities of the obsefved individuals. Rather he tries to systematize the process of observation. The underlying assumption is that the researcher always affects the process of observation in some fashlen; and such effects need to be reduced, limited to minor areas or at least made measurable with the help of some standardized checks or controls.
For observational method to attain a scientific character, there is need of some objective standards against which observations need to be evaluated. In other words, there must be certain controls or checks on the researcher’s bias, selective perception and vagueness of his observations. Such controls on the observer can be exercised with the help of mechanical devices, team observation, films and recordings, standardized schedules with elaborate categories, etc. For example, instead of vague guesses about distances, correct and exact maps can be used; casual hunches about the nature of social interaction between two persons can be replaced by definite counts, cross tabulation or diagrammatic presentation. Through controls the research acquires greater depth, sharpness and the researcher relies less and less on uncontrolled observation,
The controls help in the subsequent verification of data. The researcher must report on how he made his observations, under what conditions, and when? This way, other researchers are enabled to repeat the observations. It also becomes possible for him to know the limitations of his data. While uncontrolled observation is most useful in exploratory studies the extreme form of controlled observation is to be found in experimental research in which research controls are applied to both the observer and the observed. The situation is a contrived or manipulated one, in which definite stimuli are introduced. The observations are made with the help of standardized scientific techniques so as to determine the causal relationships among variables. Most of the extraneous variables are controlled. Both the observer and observed are subjected to checks and controls. Exact state of laboratory experimentation can hardly be achieved in social sciences. Most of the controlled observations in social research at best can take the form of quasi-experiments, i.e., the situation in which observations are made is both natural as well as contrived one.
Research Aids in Observation
By now you have realized that very few controls are exercised both in participant and non-participant observation. Such uncontrolled observation is most useful in exploratory studies whereby the researcher’s sole aim is to develop preliminary insights about a social situation. But even in such field research, the observer’s task is facilitated if-he applies certain research aids. First of all, what is necessary is a good plan for entering the group or community. It is the experience of most field researchers that after the initial period of introduction and explanation, the members of the community or group accept the presence of the field worker as legitimate. If the first contacts are satisfactory, the succeeding contacts are facilitated. Further, a researcher must be a good listener – a pupil who is eager to learn. In his mind he must attach greater significance to the community he wishes to study.
The most important aid in this type of research is the maintenance of a field log (diary recording field events and observations) on a daily.basis. The record should be maintained under appropriate headings and sub-headings. It is also profitable to keep running notes on cards or in a note book. In any event, records must be relatively complete and nothing should be left to memory. It is erroneous to believe that a particular event or occurrence is so striking that it will not be forgotten. At the end of each day, an attempt must be made to make a full log from the notes taken during the day. Striking details noted during the early phases must be carefully recorded because later on many such details which now seem obvious may be forgotten. Reading of notes at intervals helps to organise or reorganise data. It also helps to determine which data are more important and to correct any errors while still in the field. By continuing attempts at organizing of observations new categories will emerge thus providing leads and clues for further observations. The preliminary categorization of data is useful if it is done each day.
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It is also useful in field work to supplement uncontrolled observations by schedules of basic information. This must be drawn in outline before beginning the research work and should be revised in the field. Such schedules often contain basic data such as age, sex, and number of individuals, occupational structure, religion, income, hierarchy of power, family patterns etc. Even when these items are not the principal focus of a study, they will be essential for any description of the group, community or organisation under study.
1 Interview Guide
- researcher develops an interview guide before he beigns the actual task of interviewing. An interview guide contains a set of questions related to the central research problem. AU the questions obviously do not have the same form. They may be categorized by the degree to which they are structured, i.e. the way the question is asked and the attendant flexibility in the variety of responses a question permits. For example, a structured question would indicate same few alternative ways of answering it. On the other hand, an.unstructured question would allow a wider variety of responses. The interview guide uses a greater proportion of unstructured or open-ended questions.
The unstructured interview is open and flexible in nature. It is adaptable to particular situations in the field. The character or exact form of questions is not determined in advance. The researcher approaches the field with certain general ideas or options in mind. He engages in prolonged conversations with different persons. His main purpose usually is to focus attention on specific social situations or events. Depth is the main consideration. In other words, the researcher is interested to m*e queries as deeply as possible so as to thoroughly understand the given social phenomenon.
In the case of unstructured interviews, even though there is an interview guide and the researcher broadly knows what will be the principal areas on which he will seek information,it is during the course of the interview that the researcher frames the questions. Usually the answer to a particular question determines the requirement and character of the next question. A series of questions are formulated and asked during the course of interview so as to probe deeply the given social phenomena. No doubt this type of unstandardized interview helps to g,ain indepth knowledge of an event, but the information gathered cannot usually be checked and verified by other researchers.
T o overcome this drawback the researchers often strike a middle path. An interview guide is prepared in a manner that seeks certain items of information about each respondent but allows sufficient scope for the interviewer to rephrase questions in keeping with his understanding of the situation. This permits the interviewer to ask the question in such a manner that the respondent can understand more easily. It also allows the interviewer to probe more deeply when ihe occasion demands. The process facilitates a more adequate interpretation of the answers and to a certain degree helps towards their standardization. However, this method requires a higher level of interviewing quality. The greater the amount of discretion and flexibiity in an interview, the higher the demands in terms of competence on the part of an interviewer.
Fundamental Aspects of an Interview
To the mterviewer the primary purpose of an interview may be research but to the respondent its meaning may be different. On the whole, it must be kept clearly in mind that notwithstanding the requirements of research, interviewing is also a process of social interaction. The first and foremost aspect is how to establish rapport with the respondent. The initial contact and acceptance may be achieved through a warm and sympathetic approach. You should never adopt a pompous, patronising or overbearing attitude or dress or talk in a manner which tends to show that you consider yourself as belongitlg to a superior class. Some type of friendly conversation is useful in establishing good relations with the respondent.
Though a friendly atmosphere is necessary for conducting an interview, mere friendliqess is not sufficient. The goal is to obtain the facts to the extent the respontlent is capable of presenting them. Thus, from the very beginning, the interviewer must maintain the additional element of professional respect and competence. He should convey the feeling that his sole interest lies in the collection of objective facts. He must give assurance where necessary that the conversation will be kept confidential. In fact, the researcher must establish complete rapport with the interviewee. He must clear all his doubts or apprehensions. Most interviewers have found that after initial contact, few respondents reqUire any further identification. However, it is advisable for the interviewer to wry some identity card or official letter which can help to allay any apprehensions. The experience has been that most respontlents are willing to talk if the interviewer is able to establish rapport and play the role of a good listener.
The ne:a step involved in an interview is how to wry it forward. The most important criterioi which determines the character of an interview is depth i.e. how deeply the interview attempts to probe a situation. On the one hand, there are extremely lengthy and intr:nsive interviews which probe into the most intimate aspects of a person’s life. On the other hand, there are short interviews which merely obtain information about some stxial aspect. For example, the interviewer may simply want to know about the respondent’s views on panchayati raj.
Lengthy and intensive interviews do utilise unstructured or open ended questions. The answers to such questions cannot be easily classified in advance. The researcher can formulate and ask the next question only after knowing the respondent’s answer to his earlier question. This involves instant and on the spot decisions about what is to be aqked or what is to be ignored. Hen&, carrying forward such an interview requires greater skill and competence.
On the whole, the process of carrying an interview forward is greatly aided by asking questions in a fashion which most closely approximates a conversation. While encouraging the interview to grow in an easy conversational style the interviewer must probe those items for which research is being conducted.
It is of particular importance that questions are not asked in quick succession. The interviewer must pause in between questions. Answers should not be cut short as soon as the required information is obtained. When questions related to a different subject matter are being asked during the course of an interview, the transition should be made as smoothly as possible. This can be attained by making appropriate explanatory comments. Silence may crop up during an interview which need not be quickly filled by a hurried question. Such silent moments may be allowed to pass by doing some other activity, e.g., one may pretend to sort papers etc. The respondent should be given adequate time to revert to normal conversation. The interviewer should not take on the role of an educator. This may antagonize the respondent. He should not eeter into arguments. His main aim is to gather knowledge and information ftom the respondent.
The in1erviewer should not stick to any rigid position. Rather the interview should be conducted in a relaxed atmosphere. It should not be a forced, unreal and emotionally unsatisfactory experience for the interviewer or the respondent. The interview which IS developed in an easy and natural fashion approximating a conversation yields good results. Please remember that the respondent does not cease to exist after the !nterview is over. He will narrate his experience to others who may turn out to be
respondents. A good impression left behind by the interviewer will help future researchers.
The next task in an interview pertains to its recording. The interview must be recorded adequately as the interview proceeds. In the case of intensive and qualitative type of interview which may be having many unstructured probe questions, the problem of recording can become even quite complex. Efforts must be made to record the exact words of the rbpondent. The statements should not be edited for grammar or meaning. It is necessary to develop skill in writing fast and legibly. However, even the best interviewer will face difficulty in copying all that is said at conversational speed. It is often useful to interrupt the conversation by some adequate comment so as to buy time for recording.
The interview at best can extract information only about a small part of the respondent’s experience. Many other aspects which may otherwise seem obvious at the time of interview must also be given due consideration. For instance, the interviewer may gather the impression that the respondent is trying to hide the truth under some stress or fear. Again, the respondent may consistently answer all the questions except making some contradictory statement towards the end. It becomes necessary to record some additional comments which will be useful at the time of analysis. Such aspects should not be left to memory.
After each interview, the notes should be expanded to write down the details while the materials are still fresh in the mind. Delays may distort or blur the details. The comments which are scribbled in haste during an interview may not later on convey all the richness of data. In sum, careful noting and expanding the notes without delay is extremely helpful for adequate recording.
The last stage in an intervie* pertains to its closing. In the case of a brief interview the closing aspect of an interview is relatively simpler. A normal thanks with a friendly smile may be adequate to take leave of the respondent. However, in the intensive interview, a common experience of interviewers is that closing is more difficult than opening. Generally, the respondent gets emotionally involved if the interview touches upon certain personal aspects. Thus, when the interview is of longer duration and greater intensity, the interview& should select the occasion for departure more carefully and extend a expression of warm thanks for the time given by the respondent.
Strengths and Weaknesses
By now you must have got an idea about the advantages of interview as a tool of data collection. Let us recapituate:
- The interview method can be employed in almost all the major types of social research and can be used to study almost all segments of the population. The language of questions can be adapted to the ability or educational level of the
respondent It can cover even the non-literate population.
- The interview is particularly suitable for revealing information about complex, emotionally laden subjects or for probing the sentiments that may underlie an expressed opinion.
- Interview is a flexible method. The advantage of flexibility makes it a far superior technique of data collection. The flexibility allows for the rephrasing of questions or making on the spot adjustments in such a way that the social situation can be
probed deeply.
- Since the interviewer and the respondent are both present there is always scope for on the spot clarification (or verification). The interviewer can collect supplementary information by observing personal behaviour, facial expressions etc. of the respondent. The interviewer can also assess whether the respondent is under any fear or stress or. is trying to hide the truth due to some social pressures. Also, he can record details of the overall environment and context of the interview. Such additional data is very useful at h e time of analysis.
- The presence of the interviewer ensures the validity and reliability of reports. Information secured through interviews is likely to be qualitatively superior on some aspects, particularly those which are of a complex nature as compared to other techniques
The main disadvantage is the difficulty of covering larger areas. The recurring uncertainty of finding people at home (or some other place where the interview can be conducted) makes extra demands otl time and money, specially when the respondents are at a distance and spread over a large geographical area.
The method requires skilled and trained interviewers who are often hard to find. The establishment of rapport and carrying the interview forward are delicate tasks. Slight errors on these counts may hamper the prospects of an intearview.An unskilled interviewer may collect erroneous data. In a face-to-face situation the interviewer may antagonize the respondent or may get emotionally involved with him. Consequently, it may introduce bias and the real purpose of the interview is defeated.
The recording of the interview and later on sifting of the information for facts require a high degree of expertise.
- List the points to be kept in view for conducting an interview with a respondent. (Hint : See the Text3
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- In which situations is the interview a preferred tool over the observation method for the collection of data?
(Hint: Read the text carefully and discuss your answer with the Counsellor).
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Suppose you want to make a study on why people are lukewarm to participate in development programmes,and wish to collect information through the interview. Develop an interview guide to help you. When you next visit a village, use h e interview guide and based on your experience, modify it. Record your interview with three respondents using the hints given in the text.
SCHEDULE
A schedule refers to a set of questions related to a subject, printed or typed in a definite ordei. It is a device for securing information whereby a person is asked to answer the given &t of questions.
The schedule is an important research tool which facilitates the collection of data from large, diverse and widely scattered groups of people. It can be used to collect quantitative data as well as for securing information of qualitative nature. In most empirical studies the primary research tool is the schedule.
The schedule is administered by the research investigator. It is not self-administered. In the case of the schedule, the answers are obtained from the respondent in a face-to-face situation. The responses or answers are noted down by the interviewer. Moreover, the interviewer can act as a stimulus or can furnish on the spot clarifications to the respondent if required. Thus, a schedule presupposes a face-to-face interaction between the interviewer and the respondent. When the
questions are self-administered and require the respondent to answer all questions byi ~ ~it lisfcalled the mailed questionnaire. Such questionnaires are often sent by mail/post to the respondent. Sometimes they are distributed to a group of people who may have come to attend a conference, with the request that they may fill it up and return the same.
Usually a schedule contains structured items. By structured is meant that questions have fixed wording. They are also typed or printed in a definite order. Thus a particular set of questions havingexactly the same wording and sequence is administered to all the respondents.
Open Ended and Closed Ended Questions –
The questions in a questionnaire can be open ended or closed ended. Let us take as a very sirnple example the question, what is your marital status? If the responses are given as unmamed/married/widowed/divorced/separated and the respondent is asked to indicate which of these is applicable to him, then it becomes a closed ended question. Thus a closed ended question offers a largely pre-determined choice of answers to it – the responses are in fixed alternatives. The question is designed in such a way that it permits choice only from the responses mentioned. If the choices are not mentioned and it is left to the respondent to indicate his opinion then it becomes anbpen ended question.
Sometimes, the answer can be in terms of yes or no, or agree/disagree/no opinion. You may ask the question about the chances of the candidate, belonging to a deprived section, of being elected in a Panchayat election. The options to answer such a question may be listed as Poor/Fair/Good/Do not know, for instance. Thus from different alternatives provided, the respondent may pick up one approximating to his own situation or viewpoint. If the alternatives were not provided, the respondent’s answer would be recorded.The major drawback of a closed ended schedule is that it may furnish a superficial understanding of a phenomenon. The respondent is left with little scope for reflecting or relating his own experiences. By providing fixed alternatives, sometimes an omission of an alternative while designing the schedule may introduce a Gas in the study. The structuring of the different possible responses requires considerable preparatory work and expertise. Again, the researcher may force a statement or opinion on an issue about which a respondent may have a different viewpoint. It is quite possible that none of the given alternatives may, in fact, truly reflect the respondent’s thinking. It may irritable or antagonize the respondent and he may give false information.
KEY WORDS
Coding: The categorizing and sorting of raw data into groups, such as responses to open ended questions or field data.
Pretest: A trial run of an experiment or survey tool with a small number of preliminary subjects or respondents to evaluate and rehearse the study procedures and personnel.
Rapport: A relationship in which the respondent identifies himself with the purpose of the study and ektends full and willing cooperation for furnishing the information.
Reliability: The stability or consistency of an operational definition.
S d e : A composite measure of a concept constructed by continuing separate indicators according to procedures designed to ensure unidimensionality or other desirable qualities.
Validity: The congruence or ‘goodness of fit’ between an operational definition and the concept it is purported to measure. In logical analysis validity pertains to the adequacy of reasoning (premises must be properly related to the conclusion so that the argument is logically correct) as opposed to the truth of the premises.